She studied theology at Yale Divinity School.

theology = the study of religion

Typical Usage

She argues that the action is protected under the separation-of-powers doctrine that is fundamental to the US Constitution.

doctrine = principle

Typical Usage

Ontology is a central branch of metaphysics.†

metaphysics = the philosophical study of being and knowing

Typical Usage

Her faith and reason led her to study epistemology.†

epistemology = the study of how we know what we know

Typical Usage

She believes that more socialism would be more fair.

socialism = an economic system based on government ownership and control of all companies — with the ideal of equal benefits to all people

Typical Usage

It is a growing social phenomenon on high school campuses.

phenomenon = something that is of special interest

Typical Usage

Plato's Socratic dialogues popularized the concept of dialectics.†

dialectics = a search for truth through logical discussion — especially in reconciling two conflicting influences or ideas

Typical Usage

She believes in the Big Bang theory of cosmology.†

cosmology = the study of the origin of the universe

Typical Usage

Immanuel Kant attempted to integrate rationalism and empiricism.†

rationalism = the doctrine that knowledge is acquired primarily by reason rather than by experience

Typical Usage

They are inseparable companions.†

inseparable = not separable; i.e., not capable of being separated

Typical Usage

Is her theory supported by empirical data?

empirical = based on experience or observation rather than theory

Typical Usage

solving the problem is predicated on understanding it well†

predicated = to indicate that something is a necessary condition for another thing to be true or to happen

Typical Usage

It was not aesthetically pleasing.

aesthetically = related to beauty or good taste

Typical Usage

Her play is inconsistent. Sometimes she's unbeatable and other times she beats herself.

inconsistent = not the same at different times

Typical Usage

She described the essence of chaos theory as "sensitive dependence on initial conditions."

essence = defining quality

Typical Usage

She thinks Americans are too materialistic.†

materialistic = concerned with wealth and possessions at the expense of other interests

Typical Usage

She describes herself as a secular humanist.†

humanist = the doctrine emphasizing a person's capacity for self-realization through reason; rejects religion and the supernatural

Typical Usage

Her analogy is flawed.†

analogy = drawing a comparison in order to show a similarity in some respect

Typical Usage

Utilitarianism gained popularity as public argument became more pluralistic and secular.†

utilitarianism = doctrine that the useful is the good; or the greatest happiness for the greatest number

Typical Usage

She likes plain utilitarian kitchenware.

utilitarian = designed for usefulness rather than beauty or style

Typical Usage

a subjective judgment†

subjective = influenced by personal belief, feelings, or preferences (rather than being based purely upon fact)

Typical Usage

The book is full of insight on human nature.

insight = clear understanding of some aspects of a complex situation

Typical Usage

Which of the following facts can you infer from the first paragraph?

infer = figure out or guess by reasoning

Typical Usage

Kant's most important work is the Critique of Pure Reason.†

Kant = German philosopher generally considered the last major philosopher of the Enlightenment; emphasized the categorical imperative; criticized proofs of God, but believed God's existence must be assumed by rational, moral individuals (1724-1804)

Typical Usage

She has convincing rhetoric, but makes bad decisions.

rhetoric = use of words to make a point

Typical Usage

Nietzsche famously said, "What does not destroy me, makes me stronger."

Nietzsche = influential German philosopher remembered for his concept of the superman and for his rejection of Christian values; considered, along with Kierkegaard, to be a founder of existentialism (1844-1900)

Typical Usage

Where facts failed her, she used sophistry.

sophistry = the use of seemingly believable, but invalid arguments that display ingenuity in reasoning

Typical Usage

John Locke is credited with explicitly formulating empiricism.†

empiricism = the doctrine that all knowledge is derived from experience

Typical Usage

His operas are the synthesis of music and drama in perfect harmony.†

synthesis = the combination of components into a complex whole

Typical Usage

It is an ethical dilemma.

dilemma = a situation in which a difficult choice must be made between imperfect alternatives

Typical Usage

Marx underestimated the affluence of the working class.†

Marx = founder of modern communism; wrote the Communist Manifesto with Engels in 1848; wrote Das Kapital in 1867 (1818-1883)

Typical Usage

As a child, he adopted a Castro-inspired Marxism.

Marxism = belief in the economic and political theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels that hold that human actions and institutions are economically determined and that class struggle is needed to create historical change and that capitalism will ultimately be superseded by communism

Typical Usage

unfounded a priori claims†

a priori = knowledge that is assumed to be true without proof (independent of experience)

Typical Usage

Most research dollars are spent on a posteriori treatment rather than on prevention.†

a posteriori = knowledge dependent upon experience

Typical Usage

In Chinese philosophy, everything has both yin and yang aspects.†

yin = in the Chinese dualistic cosmology of yin and yang:  the dark, calm, feminine aspect

Typical Usage

In Taoist philosophy, yin and yang are always opposite, and interrelated in equal qualities.†

yang = in the Chinese dualistic cosmology of yin and yang:  the bright, energetic, masculine aspect

Typical Usage

We thought we could create a utopia, but we failed because we overestimated human nature.

utopia = an imaginary place considered to be perfect or ideal

Typical Usage

Hinduism is a pantheistic religion.†

pantheistic = the doctrine or belief that God is the universe and its phenomena (taken or conceived of as a whole) or the doctrine that regards the universe as a manifestation of God

Typical Usage

Hume attempted to develop a systematic naturalistic philosophy.†

Hume = Scottish philosopher whose skeptical philosophy restricted human knowledge to that which can be perceived by the senses (1711-1776)

Typical Usage

Many consider Francis Bacon to be a catalyst of the scientific revolution.†

Francis Bacon = English statesman and philosopher who stressed the importance of experiment, observation, and inductive reasoning (1561-1626)

Typical Usage

a conflict between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation†

extrinsic = not forming an essential part of a thing; or arising or originating from the outside

Typical Usage

Your argument depends upon an intension of the concept well beyond what the real world will ever see.†

intension = any property or quality connoted by a word or symbol — often implied by its definition

Typical Usage

The tiger in the Calvin and Hobbes comic strip is named after Thomas Hobbes.†

Thomas Hobbes = English materialist and political philosopher who advocated absolute sovereignty as the only kind of government that could resolve problems caused by the selfishness of human beings; famous for his book, Leviathan (1588-1679)

Typical Usage

Avicenna is probably the most influential philosopher of the Islamic tradition.†

Avicenna = most famous and influential of the philosopher-scientists of Islam; his interpretation of Aristotle influenced St. Thomas Aquinas; writings on medicine were important for almost 500 years (980-1037)

Typical Usage

John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham had different conceptions of utilitarianism.†

John Stuart Mill = English philosopher and economist remembered for his interpretations of empiricism and utilitarianism (1806-1873)

Typical Usage

She is begging the question rather than responding to my objection.†

begging the question = a logical fallacy or error in reasoning when the conclusion of an argument is assumed in one of the premises

or:  a second meaning of the form begs the question is often used in a way many consider incorrect to say that something raises the question

Typical Usage

She could see she was losing the debate, so she switched to an ad hominem argument.†

ad hominem argument = an argument that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute

Typical Usage

She's effective at tearing down straw men, but let me ask about a real case.†

straw men = an argument attributed to one's opponent that is weaker than their actual argument

Typical Usage

The story may sound like a non sequitur, but bear with me and you'll see how it shines light on the issue.†

non sequitur = something said that does not logically follow from what preceded it

Typical Usage

I think she raised the issue as a red herring.†

red herring = any diversion intended to distract attention from the main issue

Typical Usage

She's guilty of circular reasoning.†

circular reasoning = a logical fallacy or error in reasoning when the conclusion of an argument is assumed in one of the premises

Typical Usage

As Erasmus said, "In the land of the blind, the one-eyed man is king."†

Erasmus = Dutch humanist and theologian who was the leading Renaissance scholar of northern Europe; although his criticisms of the Roman Catholic Church were instrumental to the Reformation, he opposed violence and condemned Martin Luther (1466-1536)

Typical Usage

Engels was influenced by the philosophy of Hegel.†

Engels = socialist who with his better known partner, Karl Marx, developed the theory of communism; co-authored the Communist Manifesto 1848 (1820-1895)

Typical Usage

Extend her premise to its logical outcome and it becomes a reductio ad absurdum since...†

reductio ad absurdum = a type of logical argument in which one assumes a claim for the sake of argument, derives an absurd outcome, and therefore concludes that the original assumption must have been wrong

Typical Usage

Your simple Aristotelian logic is not going to provide a clear answer because they are in both classes to a degree.†

Aristotelian logic = the syllogistic logic of Aristotle as developed in the Middle Ages as traditional or term logic

(made up of statements in one of four forms: "All A's are B's", "No A's are B's", "Some A's are B's", or "Some A's are not B's" such that conclusions can be proven based on premises; though proof of premises is beyond the logical system)

Typical Usage

Thomas Aquinas was posthumously excommunicated, but later pronounced a saint.†

Thomas Aquinas = exceedingly influential philosopher who greatly furthered Catholic reconciliation of faith and reason (1225-1274)

Typical Usage

In answer to Occam's razor, Chatton argued: "If three things are not enough to verify an affirmative proposition about things, a fourth must be added, and so on."†

Occam's razor = Typically interpreted by layman as:  "All things being equal, the simplest solution tends to be the best one."

Typical Usage

The Nash equilibrium defines stability only in terms of unilateral deviations.†

Nash equilibrium = game theory:  a situation where no player can unilaterally improve their situation

Typical Usage

a Pareto-optimal way of distributing limited resources†

Pareto-optimal = a situation that cannot be improved for any person without making another person worse off

Typical Usage

She trusts only what she can measure or can deduce from measurement.

deduce = conclude by reasoning

Typical Usage

Leaders must overcome Montesquieu's observation that a "rational army would run away."†

Montesquieu = French political philosopher who provided the theoretical basis for the separation of executive, legislative and judicial powers (1689-1755)

Typical Usage

She is a research scientist who earned her Ph.D in physics.

Ph.D = a research doctorate usually based on at least 3 years graduate study and a dissertation; the highest degree awarded in universities in many fields of study

Typical Usage