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100 Words Encountered in

Logic & Reasoning

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accord
as in:
according to, or in accord with
She will get a fair trial in accordance with the law.
accordance = keeping
DefinitionGenerally this sense of accord means:
in keeping with; or in agreement/harmony/unity with
This sense of accord is often seen in the form according to or accordingly where it can take on more specific meanings. For example:
  • "According to Kim, ..." — as stated by
  • "To each according to her ability." — based upon
  • "Points are scored according to how well they perform." — depending upon
  • "The dose is calculated according to body weight." — in proportion to
  • "We got a flat tire. Accordingly, I pulled to the side of the road." — because of what was just said; or as a result
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resolve
4 meanings
as in:
I resolved to stop drinking.
This year I resolved to lose a pound a week for 5 weeks.
resolved = decided
DefinitionGenerally this sense of resolve means:
to decide — typically a firm or formal decision
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as in:
This committee hereby resolves...
The Security Council resolved that all parties should work together for the successful implementation of the National Peace Accords.
resolved = voiced an opinion by formal group vote
DefinitionGenerally this sense of resolve means:
make a decision or voice an opinion by formal group vote
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as in:
Her resolve weakened.
She never waivered in her resolve to attend a good college.
resolve = determination (firmness of purpose)
DefinitionGenerally this sense of resolve means:
firmness of purpose (strong determination to do something)
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as in:
How did you resolve the problem?
Three of the five issues have already been resolved.
resolved = settled or solved
DefinitionGenerally this sense of resolve means:
to solve a problem or settle a disagreement
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Library8 uses in 10 avg bks
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hypothesis
2 meanings
as in:
a study to test her hypothesis
The study will test the hypothesis that a good marriage is more important than a higher income when measuring happiness.
hypothesis = a seemingly reasonable, but unproven, idea
DefinitionGenerally this sense of hypothesis means:
a seemingly reasonable, but unproven idea or explanation based upon known facts
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Library2 uses in 10 avg bks
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as in:
assume as a working hypothesis
For the purpose of discussion, let's accept that the hypothesis that she is guilty is true. What would we have expected her to do after the incident?
hypothesis = something that may or may not be true, but is temporarily treated as true to advance a discussion or to further investigation
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artificial intelligence
It is an artificial intelligence program to help diagnose disease.†
artificial intelligence = a branch of computer science developing software that mimics human intelligence
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imply
She wouldn't make a direct statement, but she implied that she supported our position.
implied = hinted or suggested
DefinitionGenerally imply means:
to suggest or say indirectly — possibly as a logical consequence
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infer
Which of the following facts can you infer from the first paragraph?
infer = figure out or guess by reasoning
DefinitionGenerally infer means:
to figure out or guess by reasoning
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abstract
as in:
abstract thought
We all agree that we want what's "best for the country", but that is an abstract concept and we cannot agree on which specific laws should be passed.
abstract = of a concept or idea not associated with any specific instance
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epistemology
Her faith and reason led her to study epistemology.†
epistemology = the study of how we know what we know
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subtle
as in:
a subtle difference or thinker
She used subtle reasoning to expose the absurdity of his argument.
subtle = making use of slight distinctions
DefinitionGenerally this sense of subtle means:
not obvious, but understandable by someone with adequate sensitivity and relevant knowledge (perhaps depending upon fine distinctions)

or:

capable of understanding things that require sensitivity and relevant knowledge (perhaps understanding fine distinctions)
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indeterminate
A zillion is a large indeterminate number.
indeterminate = unknown or uncertain
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correspond
4 meanings
as in:
corresponding time period
The girls are using a simple code where "1" corresponds to "A", "2" to "B" and so on for each of the 26 letters of the alphabet.
corresponds = is equivalent
DefinitionGenerally this sense of correspond means:
connect or fit together by being equivalent, proportionate, or matched

(Two things are equivalent if they have the same or very similar value, purpose, or result.)
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as in:
corresponding by email
We correspond regularly via email.
correspond = write to each other
DefinitionGenerally this sense of correspond means:
communicate by writing letters or email
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as in:
a correspondence course
She took a correspondence course while she was in prison.
correspondence = done from afar via written communication
DefinitionGenerally this sense of correspondence means:
done from afar
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as in:
foreign correspondent of the paper
Let's get a report from our correspondent in Mexico City.
correspondent = reporter
DefinitionGenerally this sense of correspondent means:
a reporter — typically from a foreign country or with a particular expertise
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Library3 uses in 10 avg bks
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sufficient
We have sufficient supplies.
sufficient = adequate (enough)
DefinitionGenerally sufficient means:
adequate (enough — often without being more than is needed)
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thesis
as in:
the thesis of her editorial
Her thesis is that efficiencies gained through competition outweigh the costs of redundancy, marketing, and profit.
thesis = unproved statement put forward as a premise for discussion
DefinitionGenerally this sense of thesis means:
an unproved statement put forward as a premise for discussion
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assert
as in:
asserted her opinion that...
The defense also asserts that the defendant has no previous record of crime.
asserts = says
DefinitionGenerally this sense of assert means:
to say that something is true — especially something disputed
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fallacy
The entire argument is built on a fallacy.
fallacy = a mistaken belief
DefinitionGenerally fallacy means:
a mistaken belief; or a common form of incorrect reasoning
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fallacious
She reached a false conclusion that was based on fallacious reasoning.
fallacious = mistaken (based on incorrect information or belief)
DefinitionGenerally fallacious means:
not correct
  • typically describing something as mistaken due to incorrect information or belief
  • sometimes describing something as an intentional lie
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analogy
Her analogy is flawed.†
analogy = drawing a comparison in order to show a similarity in some respect
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plausible
She offered a plausible excuse.
plausible = sounding reasonable
DefinitionGenerally plausible means:
apparently reasonable, but unproven
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equivalent
At $50 a share, it is equivalent to about a billion dollars.
equivalent = is about equal
DefinitionGenerally equivalent means:
being equal or essentially equal
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subsequent
Her guess was proven right by subsequent developments.
subsequent = following
DefinitionGenerally subsequent means:
following something else
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linguistic
She fears the country will split along linguistic lines.
linguistic = language
DefinitionGenerally linguistic means:
related to language
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approximate
The state has approximately as many Republicans as Democrats.
approximately = about
DefinitionGenerally approximate means:
almost, but not exact; or similar
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sequential
She has a gift for breaking a complex task into a simple series of sequential steps.
sequential = happening in a specific order — especially chronological order
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predicated
solving the problem is predicated on understanding it well†
predicated = to indicate that something is a necessary condition for another thing to be true or to happen
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coherent
She presented a compelling and coherent plan.
coherent = sensible and clear
DefinitionGenerally coherent means:
sensible and clear; or describing parts as fitting together in a consistent or pleasing manner
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omit
She recounted the whole story except that she omitted names.
omitted = left out
DefinitionGenerally omit means:
to exclude or neglect something
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negate
Her apology is welcome, but does not negate her inexperience.†
negate = to contradict, offset, or render meaningless
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inconsistent
Her play is inconsistent. Sometimes she's unbeatable and other times she beats herself.
inconsistent = not the same at different times
DefinitionGenerally inconsistent means:
not the same in different parts or at different times

or:

not in agreement [with something else]
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criteria
We're considering five primary criteria as we compare job applicants.
criteria = reference points against which things can be evaluated
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contrary
5 meanings
as in:
a contrary idea
The facts point to a contrary conclusion.
contrary = different (perhaps opposite or mutually exclusive)
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as in:
a contrary personality
She has a contrary personality.
contrary = disagreeable
DefinitionGenerally this sense of contrary means:
disagreeable — typically in reference to someone's personality
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as in:
contrary to
Contrary to popular belief, the largest pyramid is in Mexico—not Egypt.
contrary to = in opposition to
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as in:
on the contrary
She was not smiling. On the contrary, she frowned.
on the contrary = an expression used to intensify denial of an idea
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as in:
to the contrary
What you do speaks so loudly that I cannot hear what you say to the contrary.
to the contrary = with an opposite or different effect
DefinitionGenerally this sense of to the contrary means:
with an opposite or different effect; or something with an opposite or different effect
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empirical
Is her theory supported by empirical data?
empirical = based on experience or observation rather than theory
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infinite
There are infinite possibilities.
infinite = unlimited
DefinitionGenerally infinite means:
unlimited; without boundaries; or too numerous to count
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precede
Stone tools preceded bronze tools.
preceded = were before in time
DefinitionGenerally precede means:
to go or do before
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presumption
as in:
presumption of innocence
I presumed she was an expert since she spoke so confidently.
presumed = assumed
DefinitionGenerally this sense of presumption means:
to think of something as true or likely, even though it is not known with certainty
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insight
The book is full of insight on human nature.
insight = clear understanding of some aspects of a complex situation
DefinitionGenerally insight means:
a clear understanding of some aspect of a complex situation; or a tendency to have such understandings
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reconcile
as in:
reconciled their differences
She reconciled her checking account statement.
reconciled = brought into agreement (in this case, the statement from the bank with the record she kept in her check register)
DefinitionGenerally this sense of reconcile means:
to bring into agreement
The exact meaning of reconcile can depend upon its context. For example:
  • "We reconciled our differences and are on friendly terms now." — settled or found a way to accept
  • "They did break up, but they reconciled since then." — made up
  • "I need to reconcile my goals with my abilities." — make compatible
  • "I need to reconcile my checkbook." — get the checkbook numbers and the bank statement to agree
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essence
She described the essence of chaos theory as "sensitive dependence on initial conditions."
essence = defining quality
DefinitionGenerally essence means:
the defining or most important quality of something

or:

a extract that concentrates important qualities of something such as smell or taste
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essential
The essential feature of the pen is that it writes so consistently.
essential = absolutely necessary; or of greatest importance
DefinitionGenerally essential means:
necessary or important or relating to the basic nature of something
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rationalism
Immanuel Kant attempted to integrate rationalism and empiricism.†
rationalism = the doctrine that knowledge is acquired primarily by reason rather than by experience
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relevant
Shannon tells an interesting story, but it's not relevant to the decision we have to make.
relevant = important (related in a meaningful way)
DefinitionGenerally relevant means:
relating in a meaningful way to the issue in question
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dilemma
It is an ethical dilemma.
dilemma = a situation in which a difficult choice must be made between imperfect alternatives
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constraint
I will devote my full energy to the project, without constraint.
constraint = limitation
DefinitionGenerally constraint means:
limitation (something that limits something else)
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explicit
2 meanings
as in:
explicit instructions
She gave us explicit instructions.
explicit = precisely and clearly expressed
DefinitionGenerally this sense of explicit means:
clear and with enough detail so there is no confusion
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as in:
explicit photos and pornography
The computer has a filter that blocks explicit photos and pornography.
explicit = expressing or displaying sexual activity or nudity in a manner that leaves little to the imagination
DefinitionGenerally this sense of explicit means:
expressing or displaying sexual activity or violence in a detailed manner
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implicit
3 meanings
as in:
not explicitly but implicitly
"Did she explicitly promise?"
"Well, I guess not explicitly, but nobody who was there could have missed the implicit promise."
implicit = understood (without having been directly said)
DefinitionGenerally this sense of implicit means:
not stated directly, but understood (or capable of being understood) from something else
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as in:
implicit problem with the design
This risk is implicit in your plan. We can work to minimize the danger, but it cannot be eliminated.
implicit = exists as an inseparable part or characteristic
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as in:
I trust her implicitly.
Her team has implicit confidence in her decisions.
implicit = without question or doubt
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dialectic
Plato's Socratic dialogues popularized the concept of dialectics.†
dialectics = a search for truth through logical discussion — especially in reconciling two conflicting influences or ideas
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utilitarianism
Utilitarianism gained popularity as public argument became more pluralistic and secular.†
utilitarianism = doctrine that the useful is the good; or the greatest happiness for the greatest number
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utilitarian
She likes plain utilitarian kitchenware.
utilitarian = designed for usefulness rather than beauty or style
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subjective
a subjective judgment†
subjective = influenced by personal belief, feelings, or preferences (rather than being based purely upon fact)
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objective
as in:
an objective viewpoint
By any objective analysis, you would have to agree that...
objective = fact-based (not influenced by personal feelings or preferences)
DefinitionGenerally this sense of objective means:
fact-based without the influence of personal feelings or preferences
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intuitive
The were perfect partners—one highly intuitive and the other highly analytical.
intuitive = known instinctively rather than through reasoning
DefinitionGenerally intuitive means:
based on feeling or instinct rather than conscious reasoning

or:

easy to understand without training or study
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profound
as in:
profound sadness
Her apology was heartfelt—expressing profound sorrow and regret.
profound = intense (of great emotional depth)
DefinitionGenerally this sense of profound means:
of greatest intensity or emotional depth
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algorithm
We wrote a computer algorithm to find words that would interest you.†
algorithm = a precise rule (or set of rules) specifying how to solve some problem
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comprehend
I don't think she comprehends how dangerous this has become.
comprehends = fully understands
DefinitionGenerally comprehend means:
to understand something — especially to understand it completely
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comprehensive
The site provides a comprehensive survey of world affairs.
comprehensive = including everything important
DefinitionGenerally comprehensive means:
large in scope; or including everything or everything important
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rhetoric
She has convincing rhetoric, but makes bad decisions.
rhetoric = use of words to make a point
DefinitionGenerally rhetoric means:
the use of (or study of using) words to make a point — typically implying skillful use
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disjunctive
a disjunctive cocktail of small talk and profundity†
disjunctive = lacking connection; or tending to divide or separate
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acknowledge
She acknowledged that she might have forgotten.
acknowledged = admitted
DefinitionGenerally acknowledge means:
express recognition of someone or something; or admit something
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construe
The executive branch does not construe the provision as requiring it to share additional information with Congress.
construe = interpret
DefinitionGenerally construe means:
to interpret (understand) something as have a specific meaning
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trivial
We're in agreement on the main issues. We just have some trivial details to work out.
trivial = unimportant
DefinitionGenerally trivial means:
of little importance — sometimes more specifically describing a challenge as easy and uninteresting
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deduce
She trusts only what she can measure or can deduce from measurement.
deduce = conclude by reasoning
DefinitionGenerally deduce means:
conclude by reasoning — especially reasoning from the general to the particular
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empiricism
John Locke is credited with explicitly formulating empiricism.†
empiricism = the doctrine that all knowledge is derived from experience
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contend
as in:
She contended that...
Her lawyer contends that the contract isn't valid.
contends = claims or says
DefinitionGenerally this sense of contend means:
to claim that something is true
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premise
as in:
the premise of the argument
Her argument rests on two premises.
premises = things assumed to be true and upon which other things are based
DefinitionGenerally this sense of premise means:
something assumed to be true and upon which other things are based
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sophistry
Where facts failed her, she used sophistry.
sophistry = the use of seemingly believable, but invalid arguments that display ingenuity in reasoning
DefinitionGenerally sophistry means:
seemingly believable, but invalid arguments that display ingenuity in reasoning
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ad hominem
She could see she was losing the debate, so she switched to an ad hominem argument.†
ad hominem argument = an argument that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute
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begging the question
She is begging the question rather than responding to my objection.†
begging the question = a logical fallacy or error in reasoning when the conclusion of an argument is assumed in one of the premises

or:  a second meaning of the form begs the question is often used in a way many consider incorrect to say that something raises the question
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reductio ad absurdum
Extend her premise to its logical outcome and it becomes a reductio ad absurdum since...†
reductio ad absurdum = a type of logical argument in which one assumes a claim for the sake of argument, derives an absurd outcome, and therefore concludes that the original assumption must have been wrong
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straw man
She's effective at tearing down straw men, but let me ask about a real case.†
straw men = an argument attributed to one's opponent that is weaker than their actual argument
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non sequitur
The story may sound like a non sequitur, but bear with me and you'll see how it shines light on the issue.†
non sequitur = something said that does not logically follow from what preceded it
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circular reasoning
She's guilty of circular reasoning.†
circular reasoning = a logical fallacy or error in reasoning when the conclusion of an argument is assumed in one of the premises
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red herring
I think she raised the issue as a red herring.†
red herring = any diversion intended to distract attention from the main issue
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a priori
unfounded a priori claims†
a priori = knowledge that is assumed to be true without proof (independent of experience)
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a posteriori
Most research dollars are spent on a posteriori treatment rather than on prevention.†
a posteriori = knowledge dependent upon experience
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derive
She likes to win, but she doesn't derive pleasure from watching others lose.
derive = get
DefinitionGenerally derive means:
to get something from something else

(If the context doesn't otherwise indicate where something came from, it is generally from reasoning—especially deductive reasoning.)
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derivative
a highly derivative prose style
derivative = something developed from something else
DefinitionGenerally derivative means:
something developed from something else
in various senses, including:
  • a word based on another word — as in "Quickly is a derivative of quick."
  • a mathematical value from a function — as in "We can derive X from Y," or "X is a derivative of Y."
  • a type of investment whose value is based on another value — as in "We provide various derivatives that can protect against inflation."
  • a work of art such as a film or painting that lacks ideas not previously expressed in other works of art — as in "Her work is too derivative to interest me."
  • work based upon or influenced by prior work — as in "The book surveys psychological ideas derivative of, but not totally dependent on B.F. Skinner."
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diffuse
When the United States focused on terrorism, the movement went further underground and became more diffuse.
diffuse = spread out
DefinitionGenerally diffuse means:
to spread; or to soften or calm

or:

to be spread out (not concentrated) — sometimes implying a lack or organization or the use of too many words
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perspicuous
They debated over the perspicuity of the translation.†
perspicuity = (of language) clearly expressed so that it is easily understood
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intension
Your argument depends upon an intension of the concept well beyond what the real world will ever see.†
intension = any property or quality connoted by a word or symbol — often implied by its definition
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a fortiori
His argument is against using illegal drugs, and a fortiori heroin.†
a fortiori = with greater reason
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tautology
2 meanings

a linguistic tautology
It is an intentional tautology as when Gertrude Stein said "A rose is a rose is a rose."
tautology = useless repetition in different words (such as "unmarried bachelor")
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a logical tautology
She didn't proved anything. It's a tautology to propose as a premise that "All men are pigs," and that "Bob is therefore a pig because he's a man." The "proof" is in the premise—which is to say, there is no proof.
tautology = a statement that is necessarily true (such as "She will win the election or she won't.")
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orthogonal
Wind and sea may displace the ship's center of gravity along three orthogonal axes.
orthogonal = meeting at right angles
DefinitionGenerally orthogonal means:
meeting at right angles

or:

unrelated; uncorrelated, or mutually exclusive
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disjoint sets
The set of positive numbers and that of negative numbers, are disjoint sets.†
disjoint sets = sets that do not have any of the same elements
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ceteris paribus
Raising the minimum wage will result, ceteris paribus, in fewer low paying jobs.†
ceteris paribus = other things being equal
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Aristotelian logic
Your simple Aristotelian logic is not going to provide a clear answer because they are in both classes to a degree.†
Aristotelian logic = the syllogistic logic of Aristotle as developed in the Middle Ages as traditional or term logic

(made up of statements in one of four forms: "All A's are B's", "No A's are B's", "Some A's are B's", or "Some A's are not B's" such that conclusions can be proven based on premises; though proof of premises is beyond the logical system)
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prisoner's dilemma
If we could trust each other, we could do better, but it was a prisoner's dilemma.†
prisoner's dilemma = game theory:  a situation where two people tend to select a sub-optimal outcome because they cannot trust each other
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† 
Sample usage followed by this mark was not checked by an editor. Please let us know if you spot a problem.
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